Why isn’t India a nuclear superpower yet?:Homi Bhabha’s forgotten vision, decades of delays the race to power India’s future

“Now, I have become death, the destroyer of worlds.” – J. Robert Oppenheimer On August 6, 1945, the world changed forever. At exactly 8:15 AM, an American B-29 bomber dropped a uranium bomb named “Little Boy” over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. In a matter of seconds, an entire city disappeared under a blinding flash of light. Three days later, another bomb, “Fat Man”, reduced Nagasaki to debris. More than 200,000 people died from the blasts and radiation, making nuclear weapons one of the deadliest inventions in human history. The world saw nuclear technology as a symbol of destruction. But one Indian scientist saw something entirely different. His name was Dr Homi Jehangir Bhabha. While most nations were busy asking how to stop nuclear bombs, Bhabha asked a different question: “What if the same atom that destroys cities could instead power an entire nation?” That single idea would shape India’s nuclear journey for the next seven decades.

Poor nation with a huge energy problem When India became independent in 1947, freedom came with enormous challenges. Nearly 80% of the population lived in poverty, industries were underdeveloped, electricity reached only a small fraction of the country, and food shortages were common. India needed roads, factories, irrigation systems and modern cities, but none of that could happen without one thing: Reliable electricity Coal was available, but mining and transporting it across such a vast country was expensive. Oil had to be imported, making India vulnerable to global price shocks. Hydropower depended on rivers and geography. Bhabha believed India needed a long-term solution, one that could power the country for generations. That solution was nuclear energy. The visionary who thought 50 years ahead Homi Bhabha wasn’t just another scientist. Graduated from Cambridge University, he was among the world’s leading nuclear physicists. Yet instead of building a career abroad, he returned to India with a dream to make the country scientifically self-reliant. With the support of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhabha established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in 1945. Three years later, India created the Atomic Energy Commission, making it one of the earliest countries to invest seriously in peaceful nuclear research. At a time when India’s economy was struggling to survive, investing in nuclear science seemed almost unrealistic. But Bhabha wasn’t planning for the next election. He was planning for the next century.

Bhabha’s nuclear secret: The Thorium advantage Bhabha understood something that many countries ignored. India had very little uranium, the fuel used by most nuclear reactors. But it possessed one of the world’s largest reserves of thorium, especially along the beaches of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Thorium cannot directly power a reactor like uranium. Instead, it must first be converted into another fuel called uranium-233 inside a special type of reactor. That extra step makes thorium more difficult to use but also makes it a potentially game-changing resource for countries like India. Rather than copying the West, Bhabha designed an entirely new strategy around India’s natural strengths. This became known as the Three-Stage Nuclear Programme.
The three-stage plan that could have changed everything Think of it like climbing a three-step staircase. You cannot jump to the top. Each stage creates the fuel needed for the next one. Let’s understand it step-by-step: Stage 1: Build the foundation India would use Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) powered by natural uranium. These reactors would generate electricity while producing plutonium as a by-product. Stage 2: Multiply the fuel The plutonium from Stage 1 would power Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs). These reactors are special because they produce more fuel than they consume. Imagine planting one seed and harvesting two. That’s why they’re called “breeders.” More importantly, these reactors would begin converting thorium into uranium-233. Stage 3: Unlock India’s Thorium wealth The uranium-233 produced in Stage 2 would then fuel advanced thorium reactors. This would allow India to rely largely on its own thorium reserves rather than imported uranium. If successful, India could generate clean electricity for centuries using resources already available within its borders. It was one of the most ambitious nuclear strategies ever proposed by any country.
So, why didn’t the plan move faster? India’s nuclear programme actually began on an encouraging note. In 1956, India commissioned APSARA, Asia’s first research reactor, at Trombay. It was followed by CIRUS in 1960 and ZERLINA in 1961. These reactors gave Indian scientists valuable experience in nuclear research and reactor operations. It seemed as though Bhabha’s plan was gathering momentum. Then geopolitics intervened. The 1962 Sino-Indian War exposed India’s military vulnerabilities. Just three years later, the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War placed further strain on the country’s finances and strategic priorities. Money that could have accelerated scientific research increasingly had to be diverted towards national defence. For a young nation with limited resources, balancing security, development and advanced research became incredibly difficult. Then came another setback. In January 1966, Homi Bhabha died in an Air India plane crash near Mont Blanc in France. His sudden death shocked the scientific community. Although India’s nuclear programme continued, it had lost the visionary who understood every piece of the puzzle.

Then politics entered the picture In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test, code-named Smiling Buddha, at Pokhran. The test demonstrated India’s scientific capability, but it also came at a cost. Several developed countries imposed restrictions on nuclear technology and fuel supplies. India found itself largely isolated from the global nuclear market. The formation of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) made it even harder for India to access advanced reactors, fuel and equipment. For decades, Indian scientists had to develop many critical technologies on their own. While this strengthened indigenous capabilities, it also slowed progress considerably.
Meanwhile, the world changed Countries took different paths. France embraced nuclear power and today generates roughly two-thirds of its electricity from nuclear energy. China began expanding aggressively in the 1990s and now has one of the world’s fastest-growing nuclear programmes, building reactors at a pace few nations can match. The United States remained the world’s largest producer of nuclear electricity. India, despite being among the earliest countries to envision a long-term nuclear roadmap, expanded much more slowly. Its ambition remained enormous. Its execution became far more challenging.
Where does India’s nuclear programme stand today? For years, Homi Bhabha’s ambitious three-stage nuclear programme seemed to be progressing at a frustratingly slow pace. It might seem that Bhabha’s grand vision failed. But that’s not the full story. Despite the challenges, India’s nuclear programme has quietly made significant progress. Today, the country operates more than two dozen nuclear reactors, with several additional reactors under construction.

In April 2026, India crossed a milestone that nuclear scientists had been waiting decades to witness. On 6 April 2026, the 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, achieved first criticality, the point at which a controlled nuclear chain reaction becomes self-sustaining. In simple terms, this was the moment the reactor’s “heart” came alive, marking the successful start of its nuclear operation. At first glance, this may sound like just another reactor becoming operational. In reality, it represents one of the most important technological achievements in India’s nuclear history. Why is the Fast Breeder Reactor such a big deal? Unlike conventional nuclear reactors, which gradually consume their fuel, a Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) is designed to produce more usable nuclear fuel than it burns. Think of it like planting one seed and harvesting two. The PFBR uses mixed oxide (MOX) fuel, made from plutonium recovered from India’s existing reactors. Surrounding this fuel is a “blanket” of fertile material, mainly uranium-238, and eventually thorium, which can be converted into new fissile fuel. In other words, instead of simply generating electricity, the reactor also creates fuel for future reactors. This is precisely why Homi Bhabha placed breeder reactors at the centre of Stage Two of his three-stage nuclear programme. One of the most important milestones has been the commissioning of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam. This reactor is crucial because it represents the transition from Stage One to Stage Two of Bhabha’s long-term strategy. If successfully operated at a commercial scale, breeder technology could help India produce more nuclear fuel while moving closer to eventually utilising its vast thorium reserves.
Can India still become a nuclear energy superpower? The answer is yes, but not overnight. India enters this decade with several advantages. Electricity demand is rising rapidly. Artificial intelligence, semiconductor manufacturing, green hydrogen production and electric mobility all require dependable, round-the-clock power. Solar and wind will undoubtedly remain central to India’s clean energy transition. But they cannot deliver uninterrupted electricity on their own. That is where nuclear energy becomes indispensable. If India can accelerate reactor construction, strengthen domestic manufacturing, expand uranium supplies and eventually commercialise thorium technologies, Homi Bhabha’s vision may finally begin to take shape.

Graphics: Ayushi Jain